Understanding School Discipline Data: CRDC Reports Explained

What Is the Civil Rights Data Collection?

The Civil Rights Data Collection (CRDC) is a biennial (every two years) survey conducted by the U.S. Department of Education's Office for Civil Rights (OCR). It collects data from all public school districts and schools in the United States on a range of indicators related to equal access to educational opportunity.

The CRDC was established under Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and has been collected periodically since 1968. Its disciplinary data component has grown significantly over the decades as research documented pervasive disparities in how schools apply discipline across student populations.

The CRDC covers discipline alongside other equity-related data, access to AP and gifted programs, teacher qualifications, school resource staff, and preschool enrollment. Our school pages incorporate available CRDC data alongside NCES Common Core of Data. For a broader overview of the CRDC and NCES datasets, see our guide on understanding NCES school data.

Key Discipline Metrics the CRDC Tracks

In-School Suspensions (ISS)

An in-school suspension removes a student from their regular classroom setting but keeps them in school, typically in a supervised alternative setting (a room often called ISS or "Saturday school"). Students are expected to complete schoolwork during ISS but are separated from peers and normal instruction.

ISS is generally considered a less severe intervention than out-of-school suspension because students remain in a supervised educational environment. However, if the ISS setting provides inadequate instruction or is used too frequently, it can still disrupt learning and relationships.

Out-of-School Suspensions (OSS)

Out-of-school suspension removes a student from school entirely for one or more days. Students are not permitted on school grounds during the suspension period, and they miss instruction without a mandated alternative. CRDC distinguishes between single OSS incidents and students who receive multiple OSS in a year.

OSS is the most extensively researched discipline practice. A large body of evidence links out-of-school suspensions to increased dropout risk, reduced academic achievement, and, for some students, future contact with the juvenile justice system. The research finding that suspended students are less safe than students who remain in school has driven many districts to adopt alternatives to OSS for non-violent offenses.

Expulsions

Expulsion removes a student from school for an extended period, typically more than ten days, and sometimes for the remainder of the academic year or permanently. Most states require expulsion for certain offenses (weapons possession, drug distribution) under zero-tolerance laws, but schools retain discretion for many other incidents.

CRDC tracks both total expulsions and expulsions "with educational services", cases where the district provides some alternative education during the expulsion period. Expulsions without services represent the most complete removal from educational opportunity and carry the highest risk of permanent dropout.

Referrals to Law Enforcement

A referral to law enforcement occurs when school staff report a student to a police officer, a school resource officer (SRO), or a law enforcement agency for a disciplinary matter. This is distinct from a school-related arrest, where a student is actually taken into custody. Many referrals do not result in arrests.

Law enforcement referrals are associated with the "school-to-prison pipeline", the research-documented pathway through which school discipline experiences can increase the likelihood of future incarceration. Research shows that students who are arrested at school are significantly more likely to drop out and more likely to be incarcerated within three years.

School-Related Arrests

School-related arrests occur when law enforcement takes a student into custody for an incident that began on school grounds, on a school bus, or at a school-sponsored event. The CRDC counts the number of students arrested in each school.

School-related arrests are relatively rare compared to suspensions, but their impact on students is severe and long-lasting. Schools with higher arrest rates often have heavy SRO presence and zero-tolerance policies that route behavioral issues through the criminal justice system rather than school-based interventions.

Restraint and Seclusion

The CRDC tracks two practices that are primarily associated with students with disabilities: mechanical or physical restraint (the use of physical force or a device to limit movement) and seclusion (the involuntary confinement of a student in a room with no other students). Both practices are subject to federal guidance and, in most states, regulation.

High rates of restraint or seclusion at a school warrant serious scrutiny. While these practices are sometimes appropriate responses to imminent safety threats, research shows they are often applied inappropriately and can cause lasting psychological harm.

Documented Disparities in Discipline Data

One of the most important uses of CRDC discipline data is identifying disparities in how discipline is applied across student groups. The data consistently shows significant gaps:

Race and ethnicity: Black students are suspended at roughly 3 times the rate of White students nationally. Native American students also face elevated suspension rates. Hispanic and Asian American students generally have lower suspension rates than Black or White students. These gaps persist after researchers control for income and behavioral differences, suggesting that racial bias plays a role in discipline decision-making.

Disability status: Students with disabilities are suspended at twice the rate of students without disabilities, and are significantly overrepresented in expulsions, restraint, and seclusion data. Students with emotional/behavioral disabilities face particularly high rates.

Gender: Boys are suspended at roughly twice the rate of girls. Within each racial group, male students face higher discipline rates than female students.

Preschool: The CRDC extends discipline data to preschool programs, a finding that has drawn significant public attention. Young Black boys are suspended from preschool at dramatically higher rates than their peers, before most children have learned to read.

A high suspension count is a starting question, not a verdict: the CRDC shows where discipline falls hardest, never why.

How to Interpret Discipline Data Responsibly

Discipline data is among the most easily misread school statistics. Several pitfalls to avoid:

Low rates don't always mean a positive climate. Some schools systematically under-refer, under-document, or informally handle incidents in ways that reduce recorded discipline rates. A school with unusually low discipline rates may be a genuinely restorative environment, or it may be underreporting. Context matters.

High rates don't always mean disorder. A school in a high-trauma community may have higher discipline incidents because its students carry more stress and trauma, not because the school is poorly managed. Some high-discipline-rate schools serve students who have experienced violence, housing instability, and family disruption, factors that correlate with behavioral challenges regardless of school quality.

Compare within comparable schools. Compare discipline rates against schools with similar demographics and contexts, not against the national average. A high-poverty urban high school and an affluent suburban middle school serve populations with very different baseline challenges.

Look at the distribution across student groups. Overall discipline rates obscure disparities. A school with a moderate overall suspension rate may be suspending Black students at five times the rate of White students. CRDC data disaggregated by race and disability status tells a more complete story.

Check for trends over time. A school that has been actively reducing suspension rates over several CRDC cycles is demonstrating deliberate culture change. A school with rising rates may be experiencing increased stress or shifting toward more punitive approaches.

What Discipline Data Tells You About School Climate

School climate, the overall quality and character of school life, including safety, relationships, and engagement, is difficult to measure directly. Discipline data provides an imperfect but useful proxy.

Schools with low suspension rates and especially low rates of exclusionary discipline for non-violent offenses tend to rely more on relationship-based approaches: restorative practices, positive behavioral interventions and supports (PBIS), social-emotional learning (SEL), and counseling. These schools often have better attendance, lower chronic absenteeism, and stronger academic engagement.

Schools with high suspension rates, particularly for minor offenses, disproportionate rates across student groups, and high rates of SRO referrals, often have more transactional relationships between staff and students, where compliance is enforced through exclusion rather than built through trust. Research links these environments to lower academic engagement and higher dropout rates.

For families evaluating a specific school, discipline data is most useful when combined with direct information: talking to current students and families, visiting the school, and asking school leadership directly about their discipline philosophy and current practices. CRDC data describes what has happened historically; a school's current culture may have changed significantly since the data collection period.

Using CRDC Data on PlainSchools

Our school pages incorporate CRDC discipline and resource data where available. When reading a school's data, look for the CRDC section which may include suspension counts, counselor and psychologist ratios, and AP/gifted program access. Because CRDC data is biennial and lags by 1-2 additional years beyond the NCES Common Core of Data, some schools may show CRDC data from a slightly older collection cycle.

For district-level discipline patterns, our district pages aggregate school-level data where sufficient records are available. State-level discipline trends can be explored on state pages.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the Civil Rights Data Collection (CRDC)?

The Civil Rights Data Collection (CRDC) is a biennial survey conducted by the U.S. Department of Education's Office for Civil Rights. It collects data from all public school districts and schools in the U.S. on a range of civil rights indicators, including access to advanced courses, gifted programs, discipline practices, staff demographics, and resources. The CRDC has been collected periodically since 1968 and is used to monitor compliance with federal civil rights laws.

What is an out-of-school suspension?

An out-of-school suspension (OSS) is a disciplinary action that removes a student from school for one or more days. Students are not permitted to attend classes during the suspension period. The CRDC tracks both in-school suspensions (ISS), where students remain in school in a separate setting, and out-of-school suspensions. Research consistently links out-of-school suspensions to increased dropout risk and future involvement with the justice system.

Why are suspension rates higher for some student groups?

Research documents consistent disparities in suspension rates by race, disability status, and gender. Black students are suspended at roughly 3 times the rate of White students nationally, even after controlling for behavioral differences. Students with disabilities face higher suspension rates than peers without disabilities. These disparities reflect a combination of factors including implicit bias in teacher and administrator decision-making, higher rates of stress and trauma in some populations, and differences in school culture and disciplinary philosophy.

What is a referral to law enforcement in school discipline data?

A referral to law enforcement means a school staff member reported a student to a law enforcement agency or officer, including school resource officers (SROs), for a disciplinary incident. This is distinct from a school-related arrest, where a student is actually taken into custody. The CRDC tracks both. High referral rates are associated with the 'school-to-prison pipeline', the research-documented pattern linking school discipline practices to future incarceration.